NASA cannibalised itself properly…
[ATTACH=full]120912[/ATTACH]
"WISE MEN SAYING "
- “Beware of the naked person who offers you clothes!
- “When one’s goat get missing, the aroma of a neighbor’s soup get suspicious”.
- “The future belongs to the Risk takers, Not the Comfort seekers!"
- “A deaf husband and a blind wife are always a happy couple!"
- “The first person you think of in the morning, or last person you think of at night, is either the cause of your happiness or your pain!"
- “Be careful who you trust! Salt and Sugar are both white!"
- “Kindness is like butter, it works best when you spread it around!"
- “The walls don’t only have ears, they now see!"
- “Sometimes, you have to play the role of a fool to fool the fools who think they are fooling you!"
- “If you have a mom, there is nowhere you are likely to go where a prayer has not already been!"
- “A harsh man tells a woman to stop talking, but a wise man tells her that her mouth is extremely beautiful, when her lips are closed!"
- “No matter how long the night, the day is sure to come!"
- “A woman’s greatest perfume is the fragrance of her man’s success!"
- “A wise person knows that there is something to be learned from everyone!"
- “It requires wisdom to understand wisdom.
- The music is nothing, if the audience is deaf”!
- “None of us is as smart as all of us. Work together
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Sasa wewe na polling station haujawahi ingia…
It was meant for nasa since they are fools.
Refer to number 14
That’s is why we were celebrating the delayed talks until the last minute to pick a candidate that also meant that they could pick a joint party. Its just a matter of time before they divide again.
1 Like
Kangaroos are the only large animals to use hopping as a means of locomotion. The comfortable hopping speed for a red kangaroo is about 20–25 km/h (12–16 mph), but speeds of up to 70 km/h (43 mph) can be attained over short distances, while it can sustain a speed of 40 km/h (25 mph) for nearly 2 km (1.2 mi).[29] This fast and energy-efficient method of travel has evolved because of the need to regularly cover large distances in search of food and water, rather than the need to escape predators.[citation needed]At slow speeds, it employs pentapedal locomotion, using its tail to form a tripod with its two forelimbs while bringing its hind feet forward.[30] Kangaroos are adeptswimmers, and often flee into waterways if threatened by a predator. If pursued into the water, a kangaroo may use its forepaws to hold the predator underwater so as to drown it.[31]
Kangaroos have chambered stomachs similar to those of cattle and sheep. They regurgitate the vegetation they have eaten, chew it as cud, and then swallow it again for final digestion. Different species of kangaroos have different diets, although all are strict herbivores. The eastern grey kangaroo is predominantly a grazer, eating a wide variety of grasses, whereas some other species (e.g. the red kangaroo) include significant amounts of shrubs in their diets. The smaller species of kangaroos also consume hypogeal fungi. Many species are nocturnal,[32] andcrepuscular,[33][34] usually spending the days resting in shade, and the cool evenings, nights and mornings moving about and feeding.
Because of its grazing, the kangaroo has developed specialised teeth. Its incisors are able to crop grass close to the ground, and its molars chop and grind the grass. Since the two sides of the lower jaw are not joined together, the lower incisors are farther apart, giving the kangaroo a wider bite. The silica in grass is abrasive, so kangaroo molars move forward as they are ground down, and eventually fall out, replaced by new teeth that grow in the back.[35] This process is known aspolyphyodonty and amongst other mammals, only occurs in elephants andmanatees.
[SIZE=3]Absence of digestive methane release[/SIZE]
Despite having herbivorous diets similar toruminants such as cattle, which release large quantities of methane throughexhaling and eructation (burping), kangaroos release virtually none. The hydrogen byproduct of fermentation is instead converted into acetate, which is then used to provide further energy. Scientists are interested in the possibility of transferring the bacteria responsible from kangaroos to cattle, since thegreenhouse gas effect of methane is 23 times greater than that of carbon dioxide, per molecule.[36]
Groups of kangaroos are called mobs. Mobs usually have 10 or more kangaroos in them. Living in mobs provides protection for some of the weaker members of the group.[17] The size and stability of the mobs vary between geographic regions,[21] with eastern Australia having larger and more stable aggregations than in arid areas farther west.[21] Larger aggregations display high amounts of interactions and complex social structures, comparable to that ofungulates.[21] One common behaviour is nose touching and sniffing, which mostly occurs when an individual joins a group.[25]The kangaroos performing the sniffing gain much information from smell cues. This behaviour enforces social cohesion without consequent aggression. During mutual sniffing, if one kangaroo is smaller, it will hold its body closer to the ground and its head will quiver; this is possibly a form of submission.[25] Greetings between males and females are common, with larger males being the most involved in meeting females. Most other non-antagonistic behaviour occurs between mothers and their young. Mother and young reinforce their bond though grooming. A mother will groom her young during or after it is suckling.[25] A joey will nuzzle its mother’s pouch if it wants access to it.
Sexual activity of kangaroos consists ofconsort pairs.[37] Oestrous females roam widely and attract the attention of males with conspicuous signals.[37] A male will monitor a female and follow her every movement. He sniffs her urine to see if she is in oestrus, a process exhibiting theflehmen response. The male will then proceed to approach her slowly to avoid alarming her.[21] If the female does not run away, the male will continue by licking, pawing, and scratching her, and copulation will follow.[21] After copulation is over, the male will move on to another female. Consort pairing may take several days and the copulation is also long. Thus, a consort pair is likely to attract the attention of a rival male.[37] As larger males are tending bonds with females near oestrus, smaller males will tend to females that are farther from oestrus.[21]Dominant males can avoid having to sort through females to determine their reproductive status by searching for tending bonds held by the largest male they can displace without a fight.[21]
Fighting has been described in all species of kangaroos. Fights between kangaroos can be brief or long and ritualised.[25] In highly competitive situations, such as males fighting for access to oestrous females or at limited drinking spots, the fights are brief.[25] Both sexes will fight for drinking spots, but long, ritualised fighting or “boxing” is largely done by males. Smaller males fight more often near females in oestrus, while the large males in consorts do not seem to get involved. Ritualised fights can arise suddenly when males are grazing together. However, most fights are preceded by two males scratching and grooming each other.[25]One or both of them will adopt a high standing posture, with one male issuing a challenge by grasping the other male’s neck with its forepaw. Sometimes, the challenge will be declined. Large males often reject challenges by smaller males. During fighting, the combatants adopt a high standing posture and paw at each other’s heads, shoulders and chests. They will also lock forearms and wrestle and push each other as well as balance on their tails to kick each other in the abdomens.[25]
Brief fights are similar except there is no forearm locking. The losing combatant seems to use kicking more often, perhaps to parry the thrusts of the eventual winner. A winner is decided when a kangaroo breaks off the fight and retreats. Winners are able to push their opponents backwards or down to the ground. They also seem to grasp their opponents when they break contact and push them away.[25] The initiators of the fights are usually the winners. These fights may serve to establish dominance hierarchies among males, as winners of fights have been seen to displace their opponent from resting sites later in the day.[25] Dominant males may also pull grass to intimidate subordinates.[21]
[SIZE=4][B]Kangaroos have few natural predators. The thylacine, considered by palaeontologists to have once been a major natural predator of the kangaroo, is now extinct. Other extinct predators included the marsupial lion, Megalania and the Wonambi. However, with the arrival of humans in Australia at least 50,000 years ago and the introduction of the dingoabout 5,000 years ago, kangaroos have had to adapt. Wedge-tailed eagles and other raptors usually eat kangaroo carrion.Goannas and other carnivorous reptilesalso pose a danger to smaller kangaroo species when other food sources are lacking.
Along with dingos, introduced speciessuch as foxes, feral cats, and both domestic and feral dogs, pose a threat to kangaroo populations. Kangaroos and wallabies are adept swimmers, and often flee into waterways if presented with the option. If pursued into the water, a large kangaroo may use its forepaws to hold the predator underwater so as to drown it.[31]Another defensive tactic described by witnesses is catching the attacking dog with the forepaws and disembowelling it with the hind legs.
Kangaroos have developed a number of adaptations to a dry, infertile country and highly variable climate. As with allmarsupials, the young are born at a very early stage of development—after agestation of 31–36 days. At this stage, only the forelimbs are somewhat developed, to allow the newborn to climb to the pouch and attach to a teat. In comparison, a human embryo at a similar stage of development would be about seven weeks old, and premature babiesborn at less than 23 weeks are usually not mature enough to survive. When the joey is born, it is about the size of a lima bean. The joey will usually stay in the pouch for about nine months (180–320 days for the Western Grey) before starting to leave the pouch for small periods of time. It is usually fed by its mother until reaching 18 months.
The female kangaroo is usually pregnant in permanence, except on the day she gives birth; however, she has the ability to freeze the development of an embryo until the previous joey is able to leave the pouch. This is known as diapause, and will occur in times of drought and in areas with poor food sources. The composition of the milk produced by the mother varies according to the needs of the joey. In addition, the mother is able to produce two different kinds of milk simultaneously for the newborn and the older joey still in the pouch.
Unusually, during a dry period, males will not produce sperm, and females will only conceive if enough rain has fallen to produce a large quantity of green vegetation.[38]
Kangaroos and wallabies have large, elastic tendons in their hind legs. They store elastic strain energy in the tendonsof their large hind legs, providing most of the energy required for each hop by the spring action of the tendons rather than by any muscular effort.[39] This is true in all animal species which have muscles connected to their skeletons through elastic elements such as tendons, but the effect is more pronounced in kangaroos.
There is also a link between the hopping action and breathing: as the feet leave the ground, air is expelled from the lungs; bringing the feet forward ready for landing refills the lungs, providing further energy efficiency. Studies of kangaroos andwallabies have demonstrated, beyond the minimum energy expenditure required to hop at all, increased speed requires very little extra effort (much less than the same speed increase in, say, a horse, dog or human), and the extra energy is required to carry extra weight. For kangaroos, the key benefit of hopping is not speed to escape predators—the top speed of a kangaroo is no higher than that of a similarly sized quadruped, and the Australian native predators are in any case less fearsome than those of other countries—but economy: in an infertile country with highly variable weather patterns, the ability of a kangaroo to travel long distances at moderately high speed in search of food sources is crucial to survival.
New research has revealed that a kangaroos tail acts as a third leg rather than just a balancing strut. Kangaroos have a unique three-stage walk where they plant their front legs and tail first, then push off their tail, followed lastly by the back legs. The propulsive force of the tail is equal to that of both the front and hind legs combined and performs as much work as what a human leg walking can at the same speed. [40]
A DNA sequencing project of the genomeof a member of the kangaroo family, thetammar wallaby, was started in 2004. It was a collaboration between Australia (mainly funded by the state of Victoria) and the National Institutes of Health in the US.[41] The tammar’s genome was fully sequenced in 2011.[42] The genome of a marsupial such as the kangaroo is of great interest to scientists studying comparative genomics, because marsupials are at an ideal degree of evolutionary divergence from humans: mice are too close and have not developed many different functions, while birds are genetically too remote. The dairy industry has also expressed some interest in .
Eye disease is rare but not new among kangaroos. The first official report of kangaroo blindness took place in 1994, in central New South Wales. The following year, reports of blind kangaroos appeared in Victoria and South Australia. By 1996, the disease had spread “across the desert to Western Australia”.[citation needed]Australian authorities were concerned the disease could spread to other livestock and possibly humans. Researchers at the Australian Animal Health Laboratories inGeelong detected a virus called the Wallal virus in two species of midges, believed to have been the carriers.[43][44] Veterinariansalso discovered fewer than 3% of kangaroos exposed to the virus developed blindness.
Kangaroo reproduction is similar to that ofopossums. The egg (still contained in the evolutionary remnant of a shell, a few micrometres thick, and with only a small quantity of yolk within it) descends from the ovary into the uterus. There it is fertilised and quickly develops into aneonate. Even in the largest kangaroo (thered kangaroo) the neonate emerges after only 33 days. Usually, only one young is born at a time. It is blind, hairless, and only a few centimetres long; its hindlegs are mere stumps; it instead uses its more developed forelegs to climb its way through the thick fur on its mother’sabdomen into the pouch, which takes about three to five minutes. Once in the pouch, it fastens onto one of the four teats and starts to feed. Almost immediately, the mother’s sexual cycle starts again. Another egg descends into the uterus and she becomes sexually receptive. Then, if she mates and a second egg is fertilised, its development is temporarily halted. Meanwhile, the neonate in the pouch grows rapidly. After about 190 days, the baby (joey) is sufficiently large and developed to make its full emergence out of the pouch, after sticking its head out for a few weeks until it eventually feels safe enough to fully emerge. From then on, it spends increasing time in the outside world and eventually, after about 235 days, it leaves the pouch for the last time.[46]The lifespan of kangaroos averages at six years in the wild[47] to in excess of 20 years in captivity, varying by species.[48]Most individuals, however, do not reach maturity in the wild.[49][50]
[/B][/SIZE]
3 Likes
OK
Hii ndio ujinga tuliona makueni juzi,mkifikiri mnanasa mtu kumbe mnajinasa wenyewe,Masaku ukifikiri unakojolea uzi kumbe wewe ndiye unayejikojolea,Asi mukamba yaliondwele sipite!
1 Like
My post holds more value than that bshit he posted… talkers didnt know much about kangaroos. They do now.
1 Like
Your just did the right thing at the wrong the place and that actually negates the value of that invaluable piece!Keeping posting these informative tidbits in a thread of your own it is as simple as that,i for one will be looking forward to such.
2 Likes
Cannabis, also known as marijuana among other names,[n 1] is a psychoactive drug from the [I]Cannabis[/I] plantintended for medical or recreational use.[16][17][18] The main psychoactive part of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol(THC); one of 483 known compounds in the plant,[19] including at least 65 other cannabinoids.[20] Cannabis can be used by smoking, vaporizing, within food, or as an extract.[21]
Cannabis is often used for its mental and physical effects, such as a “high” or “stoned” feeling, a general change in perception, euphoria (heightened mood), and an increase in appetite.[21][22] Onset of effects is within minutes when smoked, and about 30 to 60 minutes when cooked and eaten.[21][23] They last for between two and six hours.[23] Short term side effects may include a decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills, red eyes, and feelings of paranoia or anxiety.[21][24][25] Long term side effects may include addiction, decreased mental ability in those who started as teenagers, and behavioral problems in children whose mothers used cannabis during pregnancy.[21] Studies have found a strong relation between cannabis use and the risk of psychosis,[26] though the cause-and-effect relationship is debated.[27]
Cannabis is mostly used recreationally or as a medicinal drug. It may also be used for religious or spiritual purposes. In 2013, between 128 and 232 million people used cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65).[28] In 2015, 43% of Americans had used cannabis, which increased to 51% in 2016.[29] About 12% have used it in the past year, and 7.3% have used it in the past month.[30] This makes it the most commonly used illegal drug both in the world and the United States.[21][28]
The earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millennium BC.[31] Since the early 20th century, cannabis has been subject to legal restrictions. The possession, use, and sale of cannabis is illegal in most countries of the world.[32][33] Medical cannabis refers to the physician-recommended use of cannabis, which is taking place in Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands, Germany, Spain, and 23 U.S. states.[34] Cannabis use started to become popular in the US in the 1970s.[35] Support for legalization has increased in the United States and several US states have legalized recreational or medical use.[36]
[SIZE=5]Contents[/SIZE]
[1Uses
[ul]
[li]1.1Medical[/li][li]1.2Recreational[/li][li]1.3Spiritual[/li][li]1.4Available forms[/li][/ul]
[ul][li]2Adverse effects[/li][LIST]
[li]2.1Toxicity[/li][li]2.2Lungs[/li][li]2.3Cancer[/li][li]2.4Cardiovascular[/li][li]2.5Neurological[/li][li]2.6Psychiatric[/li][li]2.7Chronic use[/li][li]2.8Tolerance and withdrawal[/li][li]2.9Motor vehicle crashes[/li][/ul][/LIST]
[ul][li]3Pharmacology[/li][LIST]
[li]3.1Mechanism of action[/li][/ul][/LIST]
[ul][li]4Physical and chemical properties[/li][LIST]
[li]4.1Detection in body fluids[/li][/ul][/LIST]
[ul][li]5Varieties and strains[/li][LIST]
[li]5.1Psychoactive ingredients[/li][/ul][/LIST]
[ul][li]6Preparations[/li][LIST]
[li]6.1Marijuana[/li][li]6.2Kief[/li][li]6.3Hashish[/li][li]6.4Tincture[/li][li]6.5Hash oil[/li][li]6.6Infusions[/li][li]6.7Medical use[/li][/ul][/LIST]
[ul][li]7History[/ul][/li][ul][li]8Society and culture[/li][LIST]
[li]8.1Legal status[/li][li]8.2Usage[/li][li]8.3Economics[/li][li]8.4Gateway drug[/li][/ul][/LIST]
[ul][li]9Research[/ul][/li][ul][li]10Footnotes[/ul][/li][ul][li]11References[/ul][/li][ul][li]12External links[/ul][/li][SIZE=5]Uses[/SIZE]
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Bodily_effects_of_cannabis.svg/250px-Bodily_effects_of_cannabis.svg.png
Main short-term physical effects of cannabis
[SIZE=4]Medical[/SIZE]
Main article: Medical cannabis
Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana can refer to the use of cannabis and its cannabinoids to treat disease or improve symptoms; however, there is no single agreed upon definition.[37][38] The use of cannabis as a medicine has not been rigorously scientifically tested, often due to production restrictions and other federal regulations.[39] There is limited evidence suggesting cannabis can be used to reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, to improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS, and to treat chronic pain and muscle spasms.[40][41][42] Its use for other medical applications is insufficient for conclusions about safety or efficacy.
Short-term use increases the risk of both minor and major adverse effects.[41] Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations.[41] Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear.[41] Concerns include memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in young people, and the risk of children taking it by accident.[40]
[SIZE=4]Recreational[/SIZE]
Main article: Effects of cannabis
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Woman_smoking_marijauana.jpg/200px-Woman_smoking_marijauana.jpg
A woman smoking a marijuana “joint”.
Cannabis has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed.[43] The immediate desired effects from consuming cannabis include relaxation and euphoria (the “high” or “stoned” feeling), a general alteration of conscious perception, increased awareness of sensation, increased libido[44] and distortions in the perception of time and space. At higher doses, effects can include altered body image, auditory and/or visual illusions, pseudohallucinations and ataxiafrom selective impairment of polysynaptic reflexes. In some cases, cannabis can lead to dissociative states such as depersonalization[45][46] and derealization.[47]
Some immediate undesired side effects include a decrease in short-term memory, dry mouth, impaired motor skills and reddening of the eyes.[48] Aside from a subjective change in perception and mood, the most common short-term physical and neurological effects include increased heart rate, increased appetite and consumption of food, lowered blood pressure, impairment of short-term and working memory,[49][50] psychomotor coordination, and concentration. Some users may experience an episode of acute psychosis, which usually abates after six hours, but in rare instances, heavy users may find the symptoms continuing for many days.[51] A reduced quality of life is associated with heavy cannabis use, although the relationship is inconsistent and weaker than for tobacco and other substances.[52]
[SIZE=4]Spiritual[/SIZE]
Main article: Entheogenic use of cannabis
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Process_of_making_bhang_in_Punjab%2C_India.jpg/220px-Process_of_making_bhang_in_Punjab%2C_India.jpg
Process of making bhang in a Sikh village in Punjab, India. On the festival of colors called Holi, it is a customary addition to some intoxicating drinks.[53]
Cannabis has held sacred status in several religions. It has been used in an entheogenic context – a chemical substanceused in a religious, shamanic, or spiritual context[54] - in India and Nepal since the Vedic period dating back to approximately 1500 BCE, but perhaps as far back as 2000 BCE. There are several references in Greek mythology to a powerful drug that eliminated anguish and sorrow. Herodotus wrote about early ceremonial practices by the Scythians, thought to have occurred from the 5th to 2nd century BCE. In modern culture the spiritual use of cannabis has been spread by the disciples of the Rastafari movement who use cannabis as a sacrament and as an aid to meditation. The earliest known reports regarding the sacred status of cannabis in India and Nepal come from the Atharva Veda estimated to have been written sometime around 2000–1400 BCE.[55]
[SIZE=4]Available forms[/SIZE]
Main article: Cannabis consumption
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Unrolled_joint.jpg/220px-Unrolled_joint.jpg
A joint prior to rolling, with a paper handmade filter on the left
Cannabis is consumed in many different ways:[56]
[ul]
[li]smoking, which typically involves burning and inhaling vaporized cannabinoids (“smoke”) from small pipes, bongs(portable versions of hookahs with a water chamber), paper-wrapped joints or tobacco-leaf-wrapped blunts, and other items.[57][/li][li]vaporizer, which heats any form of cannabis to 165–190 °C (329–374 °F),[58] causing the active ingredients to evaporate into a vapor without burning the plant material (the boiling point of THC is 157 °C (315 °F) at 760 mmHg pressure).[59][/li][li]cannabis tea, which contains relatively small concentrations of THC because THC is an oil (lipophilic) and is only slightly water-soluble (with a solubility of 2.8 mg per liter).[60] Cannabis tea is made by first adding a saturated fat to hot water (e.g. cream or any milk except skim) with a small amount of cannabis.[61][/li][li]edibles, where cannabis is added as an ingredient to one of a variety of foods, including butter and baked goods. In India it is commonly made into a beverage, bhang.[/li][/ul]
[SIZE=5]Adverse effects[/SIZE]
Main article: Long-term effects of cannabis
Further information: Cannabis in pregnancy
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Rational_harm_assessment_of_drugs_radar_plot.svg/220px-Rational_harm_assessment_of_drugs_radar_plot.svg.png
Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged in delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational drugs. Cannabis was ranked 11th in dependence, 17th in physical harm, and 10th in social harm.[62]
According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, there were 455,000 emergency room visits associated with cannabis use in 2011. These statistics include visits in which the patient was treated for a condition induced by or related to recent cannabis use. The drug use must be “implicated” in the emergency department visit, but does not need to be the direct cause of the visit. Most of the illicit drug emergency room visits involved multiple drugs.[63] In 129,000 cases, cannabis was the only implicated drug.[64][65]
Heavy, long term exposure to marijuana may have biologically-based physical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences and may be “associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature”.[66] It is recommended that cannabis use be stopped before and during pregnancy as it can result in negative outcomes for both the mother and baby.[67][68] However, maternal use of marijuana during pregnancy does not appear to be associated with low birth weight or early delivery after controlling for tobacco use and other confounding factors.[69] A 2014 review found that while cannabis use may be less harmful than alcohol use, the recommendation to substitute it for problematic drinking is premature without further study.[70] Other side effects include cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.[71]
[SIZE=4]Toxicity[/SIZE]
THC, the principal psychoactive constituent of the cannabis plant, has low toxicity. The dose of THC needed to kill 50% of tested rodents is extremely high. Acute effects may include anxiety and panic, impaired attention, and memory (while intoxicated), an increased risk of psychotic symptoms, and possibly an increased risk of accidents if a person drives a motor vehicle while intoxicated.[72] Short-term cannabis intoxication can hinder the mental processes of organizing and collecting thoughts. This condition is known as temporal disintegration.[73] Psychotic episodes are well-documented and typically resolve within minutes or hours. There have been few reports of symptoms lasting longer.[74][75] Cannabis has not been reported to cause fatal overdose.[76] Studies have found that cannabis use during adolescence is associated with impairments in memory that persist beyond short-term intoxication.[77]
[SIZE=4]Lungs[/SIZE]
A limited number of studies have examined the effects of cannabis smoking on the respiratory system.[78] Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis.[72] The available evidence does not support a causal relationship between cannabis use and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.[79] Short-term use of cannabis is associated with bronchodilation.[80]
[SIZE=4]Cancer[/SIZE]
Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke,[81] and over fifty known carcinogens have been identified in cannabis smoke,[82] including; nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylic hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene.[83]Cannabis smoke is also inhaled more deeply than is tobacco smoke.[84] As of 2015, there is no consensus regarding whether cannabis smoking is associated with an increased risk of cancer.[85] Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when compared with those of tobacco.[86] A 2015 review found an association between cannabis use and the development of testicular germ cell tumors (TGCTs), particularly non-seminomaTGCTs.[87] A 2015 analysis of six studies found little evidence that long-term or regular cannabis smoking was associated with lung cancer risk, though it could not rule out whether an association with heavy smoking exists.[88] Another 2015 meta-analysis found no association between lifetime cannabis use and risk of head or neck cancer.[89] Combustion products are not present when using a vaporizer, consuming THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis foods.[citation needed]
[SIZE=4]Cardiovascular[/SIZE]
There is serious suspicion among cardiologists, spurring research but falling short of definitive proof, that cannabis use has the potential to contribute to cardiovascular disease.[90] Cannabis is believed to be an aggravating factor in rare cases of arteritis, a serious condition that in some cases leads to amputation. Because 97% of case-reports also smoked tobacco, a formal association with cannabis could not be made. If cannabis arteritis turns out to be a distinct clinical entity, it might be the consequence of vasoconstrictor activity observed from delta-8-THC and delta-9-THC.[91] Other serious cardiovascular events including myocardial infarction, stroke,[92] sudden cardiac death, and cardiomyopathy have been reported to be temporally associated with cannabis use. Research in these events is complicated because cannabis is often used in conjunction with tobacco, and drugs such as alcohol and cocaine.[93] These putative effects can be taken in context of a wide range of cardiovascular phenomena regulated by the endocannabinoid system and an overall role of cannabis in causing decreased peripheral resistance and increased cardiac output, which potentially could pose a threat to those with cardiovascular disease.[94] There is some evidence from case reports that cannabis use may provoke fatal cardiovascular events in young people who have not been diagnosed with cardiovascular disease.[95] Smoking cannabis has also been shown to increase the risk of myocardial infarction by 4.8 times for the 60 minutes after consumption.[96]
[SIZE=4]Neurological[/SIZE]
Anatomy and brain chemistry
Cannabis use is associated with neuroanatomic alterations in brain regions rich in cannabinoid receptors, such as the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and cerebellum. The same review found that greater dose of marijuana and earlier age at onset of use were also associated with such alterations.[97][98] It is unclear, however, whether these alterations are caused by marijuana use or were present before such use.[99] A 2010 review found resting blood flow to be lower globally and in prefrontal areas of the brain in cannabis users, when compared to non-users. It was also shown that giving THC or cannabis correlated with increased bloodflow in these areas, and facilitated activation of the anterior cingulate cortex and frontal cortex when participants were presented with assignments demanding use of cognitive capacity.[100] Both reviews noted that some of the studies that they examined had methodological limitations, for example small sample sizes or not distinguishing adequately between cannabis and alcohol consumption.[98][100] Cannabis users appear to have smaller hippocampi than nonusers; this finding is based on a series of small studies with inconsistent designs, so it is uncertain.[101] A 2016 meta-analysis found that regular cannabis users tended to have cue reactivity, the intensity of which ranged from moderate to very high.[102]
There is limited evidence that chronic cannabis use can reduce levels of glutamate metabolites in the human brain.[103]
Function
A 2012 meta-analysis found that the effects of cannabis use on neurocognitive functions were “limited to the first 25 days of abstinence” and that there was no evidence that such use had long-lasting effects,[104] while a 2011 review found that cannabis use impaired cognitive functions on several levels, ranging from basic coordination to executive function tasks.[105]
[SIZE=4]Psychiatric[/SIZE]
See also: Cannabis and psychosis
Epidemiological studies have found a strong correlation between cannabis use and the risk of psychosis, and found the risk is higher for with strains higher in THC.[26]However, not all researchers consider this association to reflect a cause-and-effect relationship between cannabis use and psychosis.[27]
It is not clear whether cannabis use affects the rate of suicide.[76][106] It may increase the risk of depression, but further research is needed in this area.[107]
[SIZE=4]Chronic use[/SIZE]
Effects of chronic use may include bronchitis, a cannabis dependence syndrome, and subtle impairments of attention and memory. These deficits persist while chronically intoxicated.[72] There is little evidence that cognitive impairments persist in adult abstinent cannabis users.[108] Compared to non-smokers, people who smoked cannabis regularly in adolescence exhibit reduced connectivity in specific brain regions associated with memory, learning, alertness, and executive function.[65] A study has suggested that sustained heavy, daily, adolescent onset cannabis use over decades is associated with a decline in IQ by age 38. No effects were found in those who initiated cannabis use later, or in those who ceased use earlier in adulthood.[95]
[SIZE=4]Tolerance and withdrawal[/SIZE]
Main article: Cannabis dependence
Cannabis usually causes no tolerance or withdrawal symptoms except in heavy users. In a survey of heavy users, 42.4% experienced withdrawal symptoms when they tried to quit marijuana, such as craving, irritability, boredom, anxiety and sleep disturbances.[109] About 9% of those who experiment with marijuana eventually become dependent. The rate goes up to 1 in 6 among those who begin use as adolescents, and one-quarter to one-half of those who use it daily according to a NIDAreview.[65] A 2013 review estimates daily use is associated with a 10-20% rate of dependence.[40] The highest risk of cannabis dependence is found in those with a history of poor academic achievement, deviant behavior in childhood and adolescence, rebelliousness, poor parental relationships, or a parental history of drug and alcohol problems.[110] Cannabis withdrawal is less severe than withdrawal from alcohol.[111]
[SIZE=4]Motor vehicle crashes[/SIZE]
Marijuana is the most common illegal drug reported in motor vehicle accidents.[112] A 2012 meta-analysis found that cannabis use was associated with an increased risk of being involved in a motor vehicle crash.[113] A 2016 review also found a statistically significant increase in crash risk associated with marijuana use, but noted that this risk was “of low to medium magnitude.”[114] The increase in risk of motor vehicle crash for cannabis use is between 2 and 3 times relative to baseline, whereas that for comparable doses of alcohol is between 6 and 15 times.[95]
[SIZE=5]Pharmacology[/SIZE]
[SIZE=4]Mechanism of action[/SIZE]
See also: Effects of cannabis § Biochemical mechanisms in the brain
The high lipid-solubility of cannabinoids results in their persisting in the body for long periods of time.[115] Even after a single administration of THC, detectable levels of THC can be found in the body for weeks or longer (depending on the amount administered and the sensitivity of the assessment method).[115] A number of investigators have suggested that this is an important factor in marijuana’s effects, perhaps because cannabinoids may accumulate in the body, particularly in the lipid membranes of neurons.[116]
Not until the end of the 20th century was the specific mechanism of action of THC at the neuronal level studied. Researchers have subsequently confirmed that THC exerts its most prominent effects via its actions on two types of cannabinoid receptors, the CB1 receptor and the CB2 receptor, both of which are G-protein coupled receptors.[117] The CB1 receptor is found primarily in the brain as well as in some peripheral tissues, and the CB2 receptor is found primarily in peripheral tissues, but is also expressed in neuroglial cells.[118] THC appears to alter mood and cognition through its agonist actions on the CB1 receptors, which inhibit a secondary messenger system (adenylate cyclase) in a dose dependent manner. These actions can be blocked by the selective CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716A (rimonabant), which has been shown in clinical trials to be an effective treatment for smoking cessation, weight loss, and as a means of controlling or reducing metabolic syndrome risk factors.[119] However, due to the dysphoric effect of CB1 antagonists, this drug is often discontinued due to these side effects.[120]
Via CB1 activation, THC indirectly increases dopamine release and produces psychotropic effects.[121] Cannabidiol also acts as an allosteric modulator of the mu and delta opioid receptors.[122] THC also potentiates the effects of the glycine receptors.[123] The role of these interactions in the “marijuana high” remains elusive.[citation needed]
[SIZE=5]Physical and chemical properties[/SIZE]
[SIZE=4]Detection in body fluids[/SIZE]
Main article: Cannabis drug testing
THC and its major (inactive) metabolite, THC-COOH, can be measured in blood, urine, hair, oral fluid or sweat using chromatographic techniques as part of a drug use testing program or a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal offense.[124] The concentrations obtained from such analyses can often be helpful in distinguishing active use from passive exposure, elapsed time since use, and extent or duration of use. These tests cannot, however, distinguish authorized cannabis smoking for medical purposes from unauthorized recreational smoking.[125] Commercial cannabinoid immunoassays, often employed as the initial screening method when testing physiological specimens for marijuana presence, have different degrees of cross-reactivity with THC and its metabolites.[126] Urine contains predominantly THC-COOH, while hair, oral fluid and sweat contain primarily THC.[124] Blood may contain both substances, with the relative amounts dependent on the recency and extent of usage.[124]
The Duquenois–Levine test is commonly used as a screening test in the field, but it cannot definitively confirm the presence of cannabis, as a large range of substances have been shown to give false positives.[citation needed] Despite this, it is common in the United States for prosecutors to seek plea bargains on the basis of positive D–L tests, claiming them to be conclusive, or even to seek conviction without the use of gas chromatography confirmation, which can only be done in the lab.[127] In 2011, researchers at John Jay College of Criminal Justice reported that dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of THC and other drugs in urine.[128] However, a 2013 study conducted by researchers at the University of Utah School of Medicine refute the possibility of self-administered zinc producing false-negative urine drug tests.[129]
[SIZE=5]Varieties and strains[/SIZE]
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Cannab2_new.png/220px-Cannab2_new.png
Types of cannabis
CBD is a 5-HT1A receptor agonist, which may also contribute to an anxiolytic effect.[130] This likely means the high concentrations of CBD found in Cannabis indica mitigate the anxiogenic effect of THC significantly.[130] The effects of sativa are well known for their cerebral high, hence its daytime use as medical cannabis, while indica is well known for its sedative effects and preferred night time use as medical cannabis.[130]
[SIZE=4]Psychoactive ingredients[/SIZE]
According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “the amount of THC present in a cannabis sample is generally used as a measure of cannabis potency.”[131] The three main forms of cannabis products are the flower, resin (hashish), and oil (hash oil). The UNODC states that cannabis often contains 5% THC content, resin “can contain up to 20% THC content”, and that “Cannabis oil may contain more than 60% THC content.”[131]
A 2012 review found that the THC content in marijuana had increased worldwide from 1970 to 2009.[132] It is unclear, however, whether the increase in THC content has caused people to consume more THC or if users adjust based on the potency of the cannabis. It is likely that the higher THC content allows people to ingest less tar. At the same time, Cannabidiol(CBD) levels in seized samples have lowered, in part because of the desire to produce higher THC levels and because more illegal growers cultivate indoors using artificial lights. This helps avoid detection but reduces the CBD production of the plant.[133]
Australia’s National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) states that the buds (flowers) of the female cannabis plant contain the highest concentration of THC, followed by the leaves. The stalks and seeds have “much lower THC levels”.[134] The UN states that leaves can contain ten times less THC than the buds, and the stalks one hundred times less THC.[131]
After revisions to cannabis rescheduling in the UK, the government moved cannabis back from a class C to a class B drug. A purported reason was the appearance of high potency cannabis. They believe skunk accounts for between 70 and 80% of samples seized by police[135] (despite the fact that skunk can sometimes be incorrectly mistaken for all types of herbal cannabis).[136][137] Extracts such as hashish and hash oil typically contain more THC than high potency cannabis flowers.[138]
[SIZE=5]Preparations[/SIZE]
[ul]
[li]https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Marijuana-Cannabis-Weed-Bud-Gram.jpg/120px-Marijuana-Cannabis-Weed-Bud-Gram.jpg[/li]Dried flower buds
[li]https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Kief_%28yellow%29.jpg/117px-Kief_%28yellow%29.jpg[/li]Kief
[li]https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Hashish-2.jpg/120px-Hashish-2.jpg[/li]Hashish
[li]https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Whitewillowtincture.jpg/65px-Whitewillowtincture.jpg[/li]Tincture
[li]https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Drop_of_cannabis_oil.jpg/51px-Drop_of_cannabis_oil.jpg[/li]Hash oil
[li]https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Cannabis_Butter.JPG/120px-Cannabis_Butter.JPG[/li]Infusion (dairy butter)
[li]https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Resin.jpg/120px-Resin.jpg[/li]Pipe resin
[/ul]
[SIZE=4]Marijuana[/SIZE]
Further information: Marijuana (word)
Marijuana or marihuana (herbal cannabis),[139] consists of the dried flowers and subtending leaves and stems of the female Cannabis plant.[140][141][142][143] This is the most widely consumed form,[143] containing 3% to 20% THC,[144] with reports of up-to 33% THC.[145] This is the stock material from which all other preparations are derived. Although herbal cannabis and industrial hemp derive from the same species and contain the psychoactive component (THC), they are distinct strains with unique biochemical compositions and uses. Hemp has lower concentrations of THC and higher concentrations of cannabidiol (CBD), which decreases the psychoactive effects[146][147]
[SIZE=4]Kief[/SIZE]
Main article: Kief
Kief is a powder, rich in trichomes,[148] which can be sifted from the leaves and flowers of cannabis plants and either consumed in powder form or compressed to produce cakes of hashish.[149] The word “kif” derives from colloquial Arabic كيف kēf/kīf, meaning pleasure.[150]
[SIZE=4]Hashish[/SIZE]
Main article: Hashish
Hashish (also spelled hasheesh, hashisha, or simply hash) is a concentrated resin cake or ball produced from pressed kief, the detached trichomes and fine material that falls off cannabis flowers and leaves.[151] or from scraping the resin from the surface of the plants and rolling it into balls. It varies in color from black to golden brown depending upon purity and variety of cultivar it was obtained from.[152] It can be consumed orally or smoked, and is also vaporised, or ‘vaped’.[153] The term “Rosin Hash” refers to a high quality solventless product obtained through heat and pressure.[154]
[SIZE=4]Tincture[/SIZE]
Main article: Tincture of cannabis
Cannabinoids can be extracted from cannabis plant matter using high-proof spirits (often grain alcohol) to create a tincture, often referred to as “green dragon”.[155]Nabiximols is a branded product name from a tincture manufacturing pharmaceutical company.[156]
[SIZE=4]Hash oil[/SIZE]
Main article: Hash oil
Hash oil is a resinous matrix of cannabinoids obtained from the Cannabis plant by solvent extraction,[157] formed into a hardened or viscous mass.[158] Hash oil can be the most potent of the main cannabis products because of its high level of psychoactive compound per its volume, which can vary depending on the plant’s mix of essential oils and psychoactive compounds.[159] Butane and supercritical carbon dioxide hash oil have become popular in recent years.[160]
[SIZE=4]Infusions[/SIZE]
There are many varieties of cannabis infusions owing to the variety of non-volatile solvents used.[161] The plant material is mixed with the solvent and then pressed and filtered to express the oils of the plant into the solvent. Examples of solvents used in this process are cocoa butter, dairy butter, cooking oil, glycerine, and skin moisturizers. Depending on the solvent, these may be used in cannabis foods or applied topically.[162]
[SIZE=4]Medical use[/SIZE]
Further information: Medical cannabis
Medical marijuana refers to the use of the Cannabis plant as a physician-recommended herbal therapy as well as synthetic[163] THC and cannabinoids. So far, the medical use of cannabis is legal only in a limited number of territories, including Canada, Belgium, Australia, the Netherlands, Spain, and several U.S. states. This usage generally requires a prescription, and distribution is usually done within a framework defined by local laws. There is evidence supporting the use of cannabis or its derivatives in the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting, neuropathic pain, and multiple sclerosis. Lower levels of evidence support its use for AIDS wasting syndrome, epilepsy, rheumatoid arthritis, and glaucoma.[65]
[SIZE=5]History[/SIZE]
See also: War on Drugs, Legal history of cannabis in the United States, History of medical cannabis, and Timeline of cannabis
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/%E9%BA%BB-order.gif/150px-%E9%BA%BB-order.gif
The Chinese characterfor hemp (麻 or [I]má[/I]) depicts two plants under a shelter.[164] Cannabis cultivation dates back at least 3000 years in Taiwan.[165]
Cannabis is indigenous to Central and South Asia.[166] There is evidence of inhalation of cannabis smoke from the 3rd millennium BCE, namely charred cannabis seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present-day Romania.[167] The earliest written reference to cannabis dates back to 2727 B.C., from the Chinese emperor Shennong.[168]
In 2003, a leather basket filled with cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500- to 2,800-year-old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.[169][170] Evidence of cannabis consumption was also found in Egyptian mummies dated about 950 BC.[171][172]
Hemp is called ganja (Sanskrit: गञ्जा, IAST: gañjā) in Sanskrit and other modern Indo-Aryan languages.[173] Some scholars suggest that the ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas, was cannabis, although this theory is disputed.[174]
Cannabis was also known to the ancient Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Aryans.[175] Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu (meaning “way to produce smoke”), a probable origin of the modern word “cannabis”.[176]The Aryans also introduced cannabis to the Scythians, Thracians and Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai—“those who walk on smoke/clouds”) burned cannabis flowers to induce trance.[177]
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Cannabissativadior.jpg/170px-Cannabissativadior.jpg
Cannabis sativa from Vienna Dioscurides, 512 AD
Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices like eating by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BCE, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus.[178] It was used by Muslims in various Sufi orders as early as the Mamluk period, for example by the Qalandars.[179] Smoking pipes uncovered in Ethiopia and carbon-dated to around 1320 CE were found to have traces of cannabis.[180]
A study published in the South African Journal of Science showed that “pipes dug up from the garden of Shakespeare’s home in Stratford-upon-Avon contain traces of cannabis.”[181] The chemical analysis was carried out after researchers hypothesized that the “noted weed” mentioned in Sonnet 76 and the “journey in my head” from Sonnet 27 could be references to cannabis and the use thereof.[182] Examples of classic literature featuring cannabis include Les paradis artificiels by Charles Baudelaire and The Hasheesh Eater by Fitz Hugh Ludlow.
In the mid-1800s, Irish physician William Brooke O’Shaughnessy, who had studied the drug while working as a medical officer in Bengal with the East India company, brought a quantity of cannabis with him on his return to Britain in 1842, provoking renewed interest in the West.[183]
John Gregory Bourke described the use of “mariguan”, which he identifies as Cannabis indica or Indian hemp, by Mexican residents of the Rio Grande region of Texas in 1894. He described its uses for treatment of asthma, to expedite delivery, to keep away witches, and as a love-philtre. He also wrote that many Mexicans added the herb to their cigarritos or mescal, often taking a bite of sugar afterward to intensify the effect. Bourke wrote that because it was often used in a mixture with toloachi (which he inaccurately describes as Datura stramonium), mariguan was one of the several plants known as “loco weed”. Bourke compared mariguan to hasheesh, which he called “one of the greatest curses of the East”, citing reports that users “become maniacs and are apt to commit all sorts of acts of violence and murder”, causing degeneration of the body and an idiotic appearance, and mentioned laws against sale of hasheesh “in most Eastern countries”.[184][185][186]
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Drug_bottle_containing_cannabis.jpg/140px-Drug_bottle_containing_cannabis.jpg
Cannabis indica fluid extract, American Druggists Syndicate, pre-1937
Cannabis was criminalized in various countries beginning in the early 20th century. In the United States, the first restrictions on sale of cannabis came in 1906 (in District of Columbia).[187] It was outlawed in Jamaica (then a British colony) in 1913, in South Africa in 1922, and in the United Kingdom and New Zealand in the 1920s.[188] Canada criminalized cannabis in the Opium and Drug Act of 1923, before any reports of the use of the drug in Canada. In 1925 a compromise was made at an international conference in The Hague about the International Opium Convention that banned exportation of “Indian hemp” to countries that had prohibited its use, and requiring importing countries to issue certificates approving the importation and stating that the shipment was required “exclusively for medical or scientific purposes”. It also required parties to “exercise an effective control of such a nature as to prevent the illicit international traffic in Indian hemp and especially in the resin”.[189][190]
In the United States in 1937, the Marihuana Tax Act was passed, and prohibited the production of hemp in addition to cannabis. The reasons that hemp was also included in this law are disputed—several scholars have claimed that the act was passed in order to destroy the US hemp industry,[191][192][193] with the primary involvement of businessmen Andrew Mellon, Randolph Hearst, and the Du Pont family.[191][193] But the improvements of the decorticators, machines that separate the fibers from the hemp stem, could not make hemp fiber a very cheap substitute for fibers from other sources because it could not change that basic fact that strong fibers are only found in the bast, the outer part of the stem. Only about 1/3 of the stem are long and strong fibers.[191][194][195][196] The company DuPont and many industrial historians dispute a link between nylon and hemp. They argue that the purpose of developing the nylon was to produce a fiber that could be used in thin stockings for females and compete with silk.[197][198][199]
The United Nations’ 2012 Global Drug Report stated that cannabis “was the world’s most widely produced, trafficked, and consumed drug in the world in 2010”, identifying that between 119 million and 224 million users existed in the world’s adult (18 or older) population.[200]
[SIZE=5]Society and culture[/SIZE]
See also: Cannabis culture
Global estimates of illegal drug users in 2014
(in millions of users)[201]
Substance Best
estimate Low
estimate High
estimate
Amphetamine-
type stimulants 35.65 15.34 55.90
Cocaine 18.26 14.88 22.08
Ecstasy 19.40 9.89 29.01
Opiates 17.44 13.74 21.59
Opioids 33.12 28.57 38.52
[SIZE=4]Legal status[/SIZE]
Main article: Legality of cannabis
See also: Prohibition of drugs and Drug liberalization
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Killerdrug.jpg/220px-Killerdrug.jpg
Cannabis propaganda sheet from 1935
Since the beginning of the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, possession or transfer of cannabis.[202] These laws have impacted adversely on the cannabis plant’s cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed. Many jurisdictions have lessened the penalties for possession of small quantities of cannabis so that it is punished by confiscation and sometimes a fine, rather than imprisonment, focusing more on those who traffic the drug on the black market.
In some areas where cannabis use has been historically tolerated, some new restrictions have been put in place, such as the closing of cannabis coffee shops near the borders of the Netherlands,[203] closing of coffee shops near secondary schools in the Netherlands and crackdowns on “Pusher Street” in Christiania, Copenhagen in 2004.[204][205]
Some jurisdictions use free voluntary treatment programs and/or mandatory treatment programs for frequent known users. Simple possession can carry long prison terms in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution. More recently, however, many political parties, non-profit organizations, and causes based on the legalization of medical cannabis and/or legalizing the plant entirely (with some restrictions) have emerged.
In December 2012, the U.S. state of Washington became the first state to officially legalize cannabis in a state law (Washington Initiative 502) (but still illegal by federal law),[206] with the state of Colorado following close behind (Colorado Amendment 64).[207] On January 1, 2013, the first marijuana “club” for private marijuana smoking (no buying or selling, however) was allowed for the first time in Colorado.[208] The California Supreme Court decided in May 2013 that local governments can ban medical marijuana dispensaries despite a state law in California that permits the use of cannabis for medical purposes. At least 180 cities across California have enacted bans in recent years.[209]
In December 2013, Uruguay became the first country to legalize growing, sale and use of cannabis.[210] However, as of August 2014, no cannabis has yet been sold legally in Uruguay. According to the law, the only cannabis that can be sold legally must be grown in the country by no more than five licensed growers, and these have yet to be selected; in fact, the call for applications did not go out until August 1, 2014.[211]
In November 2015, Uttarakhand became the first state of India to legalize the cultivation of hemp for industrial purposes.[212]
On October 17, 2015, Australian health minister Sussan Ley presented a new law that will allow the cultivation of cannabis for scientific research and medical trials on patients.[213] In December 2015, it was reported that the Canadian government had committed to legalizing cannabis, but at that time no timeline for the legalization was set out.[214]
As drugs has increasingly come to be seen as a health issue instead of criminal behavior, marijuana has also been legalized or decriminalized in: Czech Republic,[215] Colombia,[216][217] Ecuador,[218][219][220] Mexico,[221][222] Portugal,[223] and Canada.[224]
[SIZE=4]Usage[/SIZE]
In 2013, between 128 and 232 million people used cannabis (2.7% to 4.9% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65).[28] Cannabis is by far the most widely used illicit substance.[225]
[SIZE=3]United States[/SIZE]
Between 1973 and 1978, eleven states decriminalized marijuana.[226] In 2001 Nevada reduced marijuana possession to a misdemeanor and since 2012, several other states have decriminalized and even legalized marijuana.[226]
In 2015, almost half of the people in the United States had tried marijuana, 12% had used it in the past year, and 7.3% had used it in the past month.[30] In 2014, daily marijuana use amongst US college students had reached its highest level since records began in 1980, rising from 3.5% in 2007 to 5.9% in 2014 and had surpassed daily cigarette use.[227]
In the US, men are over twice as likely to use marijuana as women and 18-29 year-olds are six times more likely to use as over 65-year-olds.[35] In 2015, a record 44% of the US population has tried marijuana in their lifetime, an increase from 38% in 2013 and 33% in 1985.[35]
Marijuana use in the United States is three times above the global average, but in line with other Western democracies. 44% of American 12th graders have tried the drug at least once, and the typical age of first-use is 16, similar to the typical age of first-use for alcohol but lower than the first-use age for other illicit drugs.[225]
[SIZE=4]Economics[/SIZE]
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Woman_selling_Cannabis_and_Bhang_in_Guwahati%2C_Assam%2C_India.jpg/220px-Woman_selling_Cannabis_and_Bhang_in_Guwahati%2C_Assam%2C_India.jpg
Woman selling cannabis and bhangin Guwahati, Assam, India
[SIZE=3]Production[/SIZE]
Main article: Cannabis cultivation
It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of cannabis since the late 1960s and early '70s when THC was first discovered and understood. However, potent seedless cannabis such as “Thai sticks” were already available at that time. Sinsemilla (Spanish for “without seed”) is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to prevent pollination. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea of green methodare frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. It is often cited that the average levels of THC in cannabis sold in the United States rose dramatically between the 1970s and 2000, but such statements are likely skewed because undue weight is given to much more expensive and potent, but less prevalent samples.[228]
“Skunk” refers to several named strains of potent cannabis, grown through selective breeding and sometimes hydroponics. It is a cross-breed of Cannabis sativa and C. indica (although other strains of this mix exist in abundance). Skunk cannabis potency ranges usually from 6% to 15% and rarely as high as 20%. The average THC level in coffee shops in the Netherlands is about 18–19%.[229]
[SIZE=3]Price[/SIZE]
The price or street value of cannabis varies widely depending on geographic area and potency.[230]
In the United States, cannabis is overall the number four value crop, and is number one or two in many states including California, New York and Florida, averaging $3,000 per pound ($6,600/kg).[231][232] Some believe it generates an estimated $36 billion market.[233] Some have argued that this estimate is methodologically flawed, and makes unrealistic assumptions about the level of marijuana consumption. Other estimates claiming to correct for this flaw claim that the market is between $2.1-$4.3 billion.[225] The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime claims in its 2008 World Drug Report that typical U.S. retail prices are $10–15 per gram (approximately $280–420 per ounce). Street prices in North America are known to range from about $40–$400 per ounce ($1.4–$14/g), depending on quality.[234]
The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction reports that typical retail prices in Europe for cannabis varies from €2 to €20 per gram, with a majority of European countries reporting prices in the range €4–10.[235]
[SIZE=4]Gateway drug[/SIZE]
Main article: Gateway drug theory
The Gateway Hypothesis states that cannabis use increases the probability of trying “harder” drugs. The hypothesis has been hotly debated as it is regarded by some as the primary rationale for the United States prohibition on cannabis use.[236][237] A Pew Research Center poll found that political opposition to marijuana use was significantly associated with concerns about health effects and whether legalization would increase marijuana use by children.[238]
Some studies state that while there is no proof for the gateway hypothesis,[239] young cannabis users should still be considered as a risk group for intervention programs.[240] Other findings indicate that hard drug users are likely to be poly-drug users, and that interventions must address the use of multiple drugs instead of a single hard drug.[241] Almost two-thirds of the poly drug users in the “2009/10 Scottish Crime and Justice Survey” used cannabis.[242]
The gateway effect may appear due to social factors involved in using any illegal drug. Because of the illegal status of cannabis, its consumers are likely to find themselves in situations allowing them to acquaint with individuals using or selling other illegal drugs.[243][244] Utilizing this argument some studies have shown that alcohol and tobacco may additionally be regarded as gateway drugs;[245] however, a more parsimonious explanation could be that cannabis is simply more readily available (and at an earlier age) than illegal hard drugs. In turn alcohol and tobacco are easier to obtain at an earlier point than is cannabis (though the reverse may be true in some areas), thus leading to the “gateway sequence” in those individuals since they are most likely to experiment with any drug offered.[236]
An alternative to the gateway hypothesis is the common liability to addiction (CLA) theory. It states that some individuals are, for various reasons, willing to try multiple recreational substances. The “gateway” drugs are merely those that are (usually) available at an earlier age than the harder drugs. Researchers have noted in an extensive review, Vanyukov et al., that it is dangerous to present the sequence of events described in gateway “theory” in causative terms as this hinders both research and intervention.[246]
[SIZE=5]Research[/SIZE]
Further information: Medical cannabis § Research
Cannabis research is challenging since the plant is illegal in most countries.[247][248][249][250][251] Research-grade samples of the drug are difficult to obtain for research purposes, unless granted under authority of national governments.
There are also other difficulties in researching the effects of cannabis. Many people who smoke cannabis also smoke tobacco.[252] This causes confounding factors, where questions arise as to whether the tobacco, the cannabis, or both that have caused a cancer. Another difficulty researchers have is in recruiting people who smoke cannabis into studies. Because cannabis is an illegal drug in many countries, people may be reluctant to take part in research, and if they do agree to take part, they may not say how much cannabis they actually smoke.[253]
A 2015 review found that the use of high cannabidiol-to-THC strains of cannabis showed significantly fewer positive symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations, better cognitive function and both lower risk for developing psychosis, as well as a later age of onset of the illness, compared to cannabis with low CBD-to-THC ratios.[254] A 2014 Cochrane review found that research was insufficient to determine the safety and efficacy to using cannabis to treat schizophrenia or psychosis.[255]
4 Likes
Sawa…would hold on to my next informative piece about fishing for tadpoles
:D:D:D
Just post it here bro, I found the other piece about Kangaroos interesting.
1 Like
and they are still doing it. did you see waceke’s boxing partner has already declared himself the heir even as the owner is fighting for survival at the SC ICU?
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